Global Anticoagulants Market

Global Anticoagulants Market Size, Share, Growth Analysis, By Drug class(Vitamin K Antagonists (VKAs) and Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs)), By Distribution channel(Hospital Pharmacies, Retail Pharmacies) - Industry Forecast 2024-2031


Report ID: SQMIG35B2093 | Region: Global | Published Date: March, 2024
Pages: 219 | Tables: 61 | Figures: 75

Global Anticoagulants Market Insights

The Global Anticoagulants Market size size was valued at USD 28.50 Billion in 2022 and is poised to grow from USD 31.44 Billion in 2023 to USD 68.87 Billion by 2031, at a CAGR of 10.30% during the forecast period (2024-2031). 

Global anticoagulants market has witnessed significant growth in recent years, driven by rising prevalence of chronic diseases and the adoption of unhealthy lifestyles that have contributed to the growing incidence of cardiovascular diseases. Consequently, there is a rising demand for anticoagulants in the market. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Cureus Journal of Medical Science, cardiovascular diseases are a leading cause of death worldwide, with approximately 17.9 million deaths occurring annually, representing 35% of global deaths. Among these deaths, 85% are attributed to heart attacks and strokes. Ischemic heart disease (IHD) has emerged as a prominent contributor to global mortality. It affects around 126 million individuals worldwide, accounting for approximately 1.72% of the world's population. Moreover, projections indicate that the prevalence of IHD is expected to surpass 1,845 per 100,000 individuals by 2030. Anticoagulants help prevent blood clotting, reducing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular complications. In addition to conventional anticoagulant therapies, novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs) have gained prominence. These newer drugs offer advantages such as improved safety profiles, simplified dosing regimens, and fewer drug interactions compared to traditional anticoagulants like warfarin. The growing adoption of NOACs by healthcare professionals and patients has further fueled the growth of the global anticoagulants market.

US Anticoagulants Market is poised to grow at sustainable CAGR for the next forecast year.

Market snapshot - 2024-2031

Global Market Size

USD 28.50 Billion

Largest Segment

Flour

Fastest Growth

Flour

Growth Rate

10.30% CAGR

Global Bakery Ingredients Market ($ Bn)
Country Share for North America Region (%)
Global Bakery Ingredients Market By Type ($ Bn)
Global Bakery Ingredients Market By Type (%)

To get more reports on the above market click here to Buy The Report

Global Anticoagulants Market Segmental Analysis

Global Anticoagulants Market is segmented by drug class, distribution channel, and region. Based on drug class, the market can be segmented into vitamin k antagonists (vkas), and direct oral anticoagulants (doacs). Based on distribution channel, the market is segmented into hospital pharmacies, retail pharmacies, and online pharmacies. Based on region, the market is segmented into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa, and Latin America.

Anticoagulants Market Analysis by Drug class

By drug class, the market can be segmented into vitamin k antagonists (vkas), and direct oral anticoagulants (doacs). VKAs continue to hold a substantial market share due to their affordability and established efficacy. The segment is primarily driven by the demand from patients who have been using VKAs for a long time and have not switched to newer therapies. This includes patients with stable International Normalized Ratio (INR) control and those who are not suitable candidates for direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs).

The fastest-growing segment, DOACs, has witnessed remarkable expansion in market share as more clinical evidence supports their efficacy and safety profiles. Their improved convenience, reduced need for regular monitoring, and lower risk of bleeding complications have attracted a large patient population, particularly in the indications of atrial fibrillation (AF) and venous thromboembolism (VTE).

Anticoagulants Market Analysis by Distribution channel

By distribution channel, the market can be segmented into hospital pharmacies, retail pharmacies, and online pharmacies. Hospital Pharmacies dominated the distribution of anticoagulants. Anticoagulants are frequently administered and dispensed within hospital settings, where patients receive immediate medical care and monitoring. Hospital pharmacies have established relationships with healthcare professionals, ensuring a consistent supply of anticoagulants for inpatient use. The dominating position of hospital pharmacies is mainly due to the critical nature of anticoagulant therapy, often requiring timely initiation and adjustment based on the patient's condition.

Online Pharmacies segment is expected to grow at the fastest CAGR. The increasing popularity of e-commerce and digital platforms has facilitated the growth of online pharmacies, enabling patients to conveniently order and receive anticoagulants at their doorstep. Online pharmacies offer several benefits, such as ease of access, convenience, competitive pricing, and a wide range of product options.

Global Bakery Ingredients Market By Type, 2023 (%)

To get detailed analysis on other segments, Request For Free Sample Report

Global Anticoagulants Market Regional Insights

North America holds a significant share in the global anticoagulants market. The region's dominance can be attributed to several factors, including a high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, a well-established healthcare infrastructure, and the presence of key market players. The United States, in particular, plays a crucial role in driving the growth of the anticoagulants market in North America, owing to its large population and advanced healthcare system.

The Asia-Pacific region is experiencing rapid growth in the anticoagulants market. Factors such as a growing geriatric population, changing lifestyles, and an increasing prevalence of cardiovascular diseases have led to a surge in demand for anticoagulant therapies in this region. Countries like China and India have witnessed a significant rise in cardiovascular disease cases, driving the market growth in APAC.

Global Bakery Ingredients Market By Region, 2024-2031
  • Largest
  • Fastest

To know more about the market opportunities by region and country, click here to
Buy The Complete Report

Global Anticoagulants Market Dynamics

Anticoagulants Market Drivers

Increasing prevalence of cardiovascular diseases

  • One key driver of the global anticoagulants market is the increasing prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, including ischemic heart disease (IHD), worldwide. With millions of deaths each year attributed to cardiovascular diseases, there is a growing need for effective treatments to prevent heart attacks and strokes. This rising disease burden has resulted in a higher demand for anticoagulant medications, driving the growth of the market. Additionally, the adoption of novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs) has further fueled the market expansion, offering improved safety and convenience compared to traditional anticoagulants.

Anticoagulants Market Restraints

Potential risk of bleeding complications

  • One significant restraint for the global anticoagulants market is the potential risk of bleeding complications associated with anticoagulant therapy. While these medications are essential for preventing blood clots, they can also increase the risk of bleeding events, which can be life-threatening in some cases. This risk poses a challenge for healthcare professionals in balancing the benefits of anticoagulant therapy with the potential adverse effects. Additionally, the high cost of anticoagulant medications can limit their accessibility, especially in developing regions, further restraining market growth.

Request Free Customization of this report to help us to meet your business objectives.

Global Anticoagulants Market Competitive Landscape

The global anticoagulants market is characterized by a diverse range of pharmaceutical companies and research institutions striving to develop innovative anticoagulant therapies. These players focus on research and development activities to introduce novel treatment options with improved efficacy and safety profiles. Collaborations and partnerships are also common strategies to enhance product portfolios and expand market reach. Additionally, regulatory approvals and clinical trials play a crucial role in shaping the competitive dynamics of the market, as they determine the commercial success of new anticoagulant drugs.

Anticoagulants Market Top Player’s Company Profiles

  • Johnson & Johnson (US)
  • Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH (Germany)
  • Sanofi S.A. (France)
  • Daiichi Sankyo Company, Limited (Japan)
  • Novartis International AG (Switzerland)
  • Eli Lilly and Company (US)
  • AstraZeneca PLC (UK)
  • Merck & Co., Inc. (US)
  • GlaxoSmithKline PLC (UK)
  • Abbott Laboratories (US)
  • Aspen Pharmacare Holdings Limited (South Africa)
  • Otsuka Holdings Co., Ltd. (Japan)
  • Mylan N.V. (US)
  • Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited (Japan)
  • Leo Pharma A/S (Denmark)
  • Portola Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (US)
  • CSL Limited (Australia)

Anticoagulants Market Recent Developments

  • In June 2023, Boehringer Ingelheim announced a partnership with Twist Bioscience Corporation to discover and develop novel anticoagulant therapies using synthetic biology and next-generation sequencing technologies.
  • In May 2023, Janssen Pharmaceuticals launched Xarelto® (rivaroxaban) in India for the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism, stroke, and atrial fibrillation.
  • In April 2023, Merck & Co., Inc. announced an investment of $1 billion to expand its manufacturing facility in the United States, focusing on the production of cardiovascular and anticoagulant therapies.
  • In February 2023, Novartis completed the acquisition of The Medicines Company, expanding its portfolio of cardiovascular medicines, including anticoagulants.
  • In January 2023, Bristol Myers Squibb announced a collaboration with Schrödinger, Inc. to utilize computational design for the discovery of novel anticoagulant therapies.

Global Anticoagulants Key Market Trends

  • One key trend in the global anticoagulants market is the increasing adoption of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) over traditional anticoagulant therapies such as warfarin. DOACs offer advantages such as predictable dosing, fewer drug interactions, and reduced need for frequent monitoring compared to warfarin. The shift towards DOACs is driven by the convenience and improved safety profiles they offer, leading to better patient adherence. Additionally, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on expanding the range of indications for DOACs, further driving their popularity in the market.

Global Anticoagulants Market SkyQuest Analysis

SkyQuest’s ABIRAW (Advanced Business Intelligence, Research & Analysis Wing) is our Business Information Services team that Collects, Collates, Co-relates, and Analyses the Data collected by means of Primary Exploratory Research backed by robust Secondary Desk research.

According to our global anticoagulants market analysis, the market is witnessing significant growth due to the high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, particularly ischemic heart disease (IHD), worldwide. With millions of deaths annually attributed to cardiovascular diseases, there is a growing demand for effective anticoagulant therapies to prevent heart attacks and strokes. The market is driven by factors such as the increasing adoption of novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs), advancements in treatment options, and rising awareness about preventive healthcare measures. However, the market faces challenges related to the potential risk of bleeding complications and the high cost of medications. The competitive landscape involves key players engaged in research and development activities to introduce innovative anticoagulant therapies.

Report Metric Details
Market size value in 2023 USD 28.50 Billion
Market size value in 2031 USD 68.87 Billion
Growth Rate 10.30%
Forecast period 2024-2031
Forecast Unit (Value) USD Billion
Segments covered
  • Drug class
    • Vitamin K Antagonists (VKAs) and Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs)
  • Distribution channel
    • Hospital Pharmacies, Retail Pharmacies, and Online Pharmacies
Regions covered North America (US, Canada), Europe (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Rest of Europe), Asia Pacific (China, India, Japan, Rest of Asia-Pacific), Latin America (Brazil, Rest of Latin America), Middle East & Africa (South Africa, GCC Countries, Rest of MEA)
Companies covered
  • Johnson & Johnson (US)
  • Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH (Germany)
  • Sanofi S.A. (France)
  • Daiichi Sankyo Company, Limited (Japan)
  • Novartis International AG (Switzerland)
  • Eli Lilly and Company (US)
  • AstraZeneca PLC (UK)
  • Merck & Co., Inc. (US)
  • GlaxoSmithKline PLC (UK)
  • Abbott Laboratories (US)
  • Aspen Pharmacare Holdings Limited (South Africa)
  • Otsuka Holdings Co., Ltd. (Japan)
  • Mylan N.V. (US)
  • Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited (Japan)
  • Leo Pharma A/S (Denmark)
  • Portola Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (US)
  • CSL Limited (Australia)
Customization scope

Free report customization with purchase. Customization includes:-

  • Segments by type, application, etc
  • Company profile
  • Market dynamics & outlook
  • Region

To get a free trial access to our platform which is a one stop solution for all your data requirements for quicker decision making. This platform allows you to compare markets, competitors who are prominent in the market, and mega trends that are influencing the dynamics in the market. Also, get access to detailed SkyQuest exclusive matrix.

Buy The Complete Report to read the analyzed strategies adopted by the top vendors either to retain or gain market share

Table Of Content

Executive Summary

Market overview

  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Market Overview
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Data Table on Market Overview
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Global Anticoagulants Market Characteristics
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Market by Geography
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Market Segmentation
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Incremental Growth
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Data Table on Incremental Growth
  • Exhibit: Executive Summary – Chart on Vendor Market Positioning

Parent Market Analysis

Market overview

Market size

  • Market Dynamics
    • Exhibit: Impact analysis of DROC, 2021
      • Drivers
      • Opportunities
      • Restraints
      • Challenges
  • SWOT Analysis

KEY MARKET INSIGHTS

  • Technology Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Name of technology and details)
  • Pricing Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Name of technology and pricing details)
  • Supply Chain Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Detailed Supply Chain Presentation)
  • Value Chain Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Detailed Value Chain Presentation)
  • Ecosystem Of the Market
    • Exhibit: Parent Market Ecosystem Market Analysis
    • Exhibit: Market Characteristics of Parent Market
  • IP Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Name of product/technology, patents filed, inventor/company name, acquiring firm)
  • Trade Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Import and Export data details)
  • Startup Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Emerging startups details)
  • Raw Material Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Mapping of key raw materials)
  • Innovation Matrix
    • (Exhibit: Positioning Matrix: Mapping of new and existing technologies)
  • Pipeline product Analysis
    • (Exhibit: Data Table: Name of companies and pipeline products, regional mapping)
  • Macroeconomic Indicators

COVID IMPACT

  • Introduction
  • Impact On Economy—scenario Assessment
    • Exhibit: Data on GDP - Year-over-year growth 2016-2022 (%)
  • Revised Market Size
    • Exhibit: Data Table on Global Anticoagulants Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • Impact Of COVID On Key Segments
    • Exhibit: Data Table on Segment Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • COVID Strategies By Company
    • Exhibit: Analysis on key strategies adopted by companies

MARKET DYNAMICS & OUTLOOK

  • Market Dynamics
    • Exhibit: Impact analysis of DROC, 2021
      • Drivers
      • Opportunities
      • Restraints
      • Challenges
  • Regulatory Landscape
    • Exhibit: Data Table on regulation from different region
  • SWOT Analysis
  • Porters Analysis
    • Competitive rivalry
      • Exhibit: Competitive rivalry Impact of key factors, 2021
    • Threat of substitute products
      • Exhibit: Threat of Substitute Products Impact of key factors, 2021
    • Bargaining power of buyers
      • Exhibit: buyers bargaining power Impact of key factors, 2021
    • Threat of new entrants
      • Exhibit: Threat of new entrants Impact of key factors, 2021
    • Bargaining power of suppliers
      • Exhibit: Threat of suppliers bargaining power Impact of key factors, 2021
  • Skyquest special insights on future disruptions
    • Political Impact
    • Economic impact
    • Social Impact
    • Technical Impact
    • Environmental Impact
    • Legal Impact

Market Size by Region

  • Chart on Market share by geography 2021-2027 (%)
  • Data Table on Market share by geography 2021-2027(%)
  • North America
    • Chart on Market share by country 2021-2027 (%)
    • Data Table on Market share by country 2021-2027(%)
    • USA
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Canada
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • Europe
    • Chart on Market share by country 2021-2027 (%)
    • Data Table on Market share by country 2021-2027(%)
    • Germany
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Spain
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • France
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • UK
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Rest of Europe
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • Asia Pacific
    • Chart on Market share by country 2021-2027 (%)
    • Data Table on Market share by country 2021-2027(%)
    • China
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • India
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Japan
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • South Korea
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • Latin America
    • Chart on Market share by country 2021-2027 (%)
    • Data Table on Market share by country 2021-2027(%)
    • Brazil
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Rest of South America
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
  • Middle East & Africa (MEA)
    • Chart on Market share by country 2021-2027 (%)
    • Data Table on Market share by country 2021-2027(%)
    • GCC Countries
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • South Africa
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)
    • Rest of MEA
      • Exhibit: Chart on Market share 2021-2027 (%)
      • Exhibit: Market size and forecast 2021-2027 ($ million)

KEY COMPANY PROFILES

  • Competitive Landscape
    • Total number of companies covered
      • Exhibit: companies covered in the report, 2021
    • Top companies market positioning
      • Exhibit: company positioning matrix, 2021
    • Top companies market Share
      • Exhibit: Pie chart analysis on company market share, 2021(%)

Methodology

For the Global Anticoagulants Market, our research methodology involved a mixture of primary and secondary data sources. Key steps involved in the research process are listed below:

1. Information Procurement: This stage involved the procurement of Market data or related information via primary and secondary sources. The various secondary sources used included various company websites, annual reports, trade databases, and paid databases such as Hoover's, Bloomberg Business, Factiva, and Avention. Our team did 45 primary interactions Globally which included several stakeholders such as manufacturers, customers, key opinion leaders, etc. Overall, information procurement was one of the most extensive stages in our research process.

2. Information Analysis: This step involved triangulation of data through bottom-up and top-down approaches to estimate and validate the total size and future estimate of the Global Anticoagulants Market.

3. Report Formulation: The final step entailed the placement of data points in appropriate Market spaces in an attempt to deduce viable conclusions.

4. Validation & Publishing: Validation is the most important step in the process. Validation & re-validation via an intricately designed process helped us finalize data points to be used for final calculations. The final Market estimates and forecasts were then aligned and sent to our panel of industry experts for validation of data. Once the validation was done the report was sent to our Quality Assurance team to ensure adherence to style guides, consistency & design.

Analyst Support

Customization Options

With the given market data, our dedicated team of analysts can offer you the following customization options are available for the Global Anticoagulants Market:

Product Analysis: Product matrix, which offers a detailed comparison of the product portfolio of companies.

Regional Analysis: Further analysis of the Global Anticoagulants Market for additional countries.

Competitive Analysis: Detailed analysis and profiling of additional Market players & comparative analysis of competitive products.

Go to Market Strategy: Find the high-growth channels to invest your marketing efforts and increase your customer base.

Innovation Mapping: Identify racial solutions and innovation, connected to deep ecosystems of innovators, start-ups, academics, and strategic partners.

Category Intelligence: Customized intelligence that is relevant to their supply Markets will enable them to make smarter sourcing decisions and improve their category management.

Public Company Transcript Analysis: To improve the investment performance by generating new alpha and making better-informed decisions.

Social Media Listening: To analyze the conversations and trends happening not just around your brand, but around your industry as a whole, and use those insights to make better Marketing decisions.

$5,300
BUY NOW GET FREE SAMPLE
Want to customize this report?

Our industry expert will work with you to provide you with customized data in a short amount of time.

REQUEST FREE CUSTOMIZATION

FAQs

The Global Anticoagulants Market size size was valued at USD 28.50 Billion in 2022 and is poised to grow from USD 31.44 Billion in 2023 to USD 68.87 Billion by 2031, at a CAGR of 10.30% during the forecast period (2024-2031). 

The global anticoagulants market is characterized by a diverse range of pharmaceutical companies and research institutions striving to develop innovative anticoagulant therapies. These players focus on research and development activities to introduce novel treatment options with improved efficacy and safety profiles. Collaborations and partnerships are also common strategies to enhance product portfolios and expand market reach. Additionally, regulatory approvals and clinical trials play a crucial role in shaping the competitive dynamics of the market, as they determine the commercial success of new anticoagulant drugs. 'Pfizer Inc. (US)', 'Bayer AG (Germany)', 'Bristol Myers Squibb Company (US)', 'Johnson & Johnson (US)', 'Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH (Germany)', 'Sanofi S.A. (France)', 'Daiichi Sankyo Company, Limited (Japan)', 'Novartis International AG (Switzerland)', 'Eli Lilly and Company (US)', 'AstraZeneca PLC (UK)', 'Merck & Co., Inc. (US)', 'GlaxoSmithKline PLC (UK)', 'Abbott Laboratories (US)', 'Aspen Pharmacare Holdings Limited (South Africa)', 'Otsuka Holdings Co., Ltd. (Japan)', 'Mylan N.V. (US)', 'Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited (Japan)', 'Leo Pharma A/S (Denmark)', 'Portola Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (US)', 'CSL Limited (Australia)'

One key driver of the global anticoagulants market is the increasing prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, including ischemic heart disease (IHD), worldwide. With millions of deaths each year attributed to cardiovascular diseases, there is a growing need for effective treatments to prevent heart attacks and strokes. This rising disease burden has resulted in a higher demand for anticoagulant medications, driving the growth of the market. Additionally, the adoption of novel oral anticoagulants (NOACs) has further fueled the market expansion, offering improved safety and convenience compared to traditional anticoagulants.

One key trend in the global anticoagulants market is the increasing adoption of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) over traditional anticoagulant therapies such as warfarin. DOACs offer advantages such as predictable dosing, fewer drug interactions, and reduced need for frequent monitoring compared to warfarin. The shift towards DOACs is driven by the convenience and improved safety profiles they offer, leading to better patient adherence. Additionally, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on expanding the range of indications for DOACs, further driving their popularity in the market.

North America holds a significant share in the global anticoagulants market. The region's dominance can be attributed to several factors, including a high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, a well-established healthcare infrastructure, and the presence of key market players. The United States, in particular, plays a crucial role in driving the growth of the anticoagulants market in North America, owing to its large population and advanced healthcare system.

Request Free Customization

Want to customize this report? This report can be personalized according to your needs. Our analysts and industry experts will work directly with you to understand your requirements and provide you with customized data in a short amount of time. We offer $1000 worth of FREE customization at the time of purchase.

logo-images

Feedback From Our Clients

Global Anticoagulants Market

Product ID: SQMIG35B2093

$5,300
BUY NOW GET FREE SAMPLE